May.15th lecture 4
First punic war: 264-241
–Result: 20 years of war
–Would need sth special from Rome or Carthage
to win
–Carthage: mercenaries, but good navy
–Rome: excellent army, no
well-established naval force
–Result: statement
Trireme
–3 banks of oars
–Corvus (boarding ramp)
Quinquereme is heavier, 5 banks of oars
Naval warfare in ancient world
n Rams
n Immobillisation
–roman idea: make it a land
battle, on water
–board using corvus/raven (but problems)
–grapnel
–physically seize enemy ships, or ram them
–armoured
sailors cannot swim very well
Polybius, on the corvus
–Roman shipbuilding
program-superhuman effort
–But now, had to learn how to
fight at sea-no real experience
–Would have plenty of upsets,
errors… (storms too)
— in the meantime:
–256: 2 consulsà
Africa; ambitious, war on Carthaginian territory
–Plunder of countryside; 1 cos.
Home, Other remained:
–Marcus atilius regulus
–255: defeated Carthaginians;
camped at Tunis
–Negotiations, rejected by Rome
–Spartan mercenary, Xanthippus-
replaced local commanders
–Romans crushed; regulus
captured
–romans crushed; regulus
captured
–With regulus- what is true and
what is legend?
–Deal with humiliation by
mythologizing it!
–Ex. Romans defeated b/c of
massive snake
–Legend- in captivity until 250
–Gave parole to Carthaginians;
sent to Rome to negotiate
–In his speech to senate- urged
no surrender
–Returned to Carthageà
met his end
–Regulus: reluctant here,
duty> personal need
–source: Horace-reliable?
–Ode 3.5; titled, no surrender
–Warning to lax romans of his own day
–Holds up regulus as ideal model
–Intensely
patriotic in period of civil war
–Regulus’ death
–Xanthippus, and the leaky ship
–All of this: Rome’s north
African invasion- not a success
–More setbacks for Rome
–254: fleet to Africa, rescue
survivors
–Defeated Carthaginian fleet,
but then massive storm
–Romans massive effort at
Panormus-Sicily
–250: lucius caecilius metellus,
army, crushed Carthaginian attack
–Huge triumph in rome, with 100
elephants
–But then chickens…
Drepanum, 249, western coast of
sicily
Publius Claudius pulcher
–Frustrated by progress of siege
of Carthaginian base at lilibaeum (western Sicily)
Decided to take offensive
Auspieces: the sacred chickens
Let them drink, since they don’t
want to eat
Result: romans suffered horrible
defeat
Pulcher accused of sacrilege for
killing scared chickens
–War dragged on to an end with
reverses/benefits for each side
–241: Romans finally achieved
naval victory, off Sicily
–Carthaginian commander: Hamilcar
– peace treaty
–Indemnity: triggered mercenary
revolt
–The “truceless war” – savage
–Rome took opportunity: Sardinia
–Carthage shattered
–Sent Hamilcar Barca (father of Hannibal)
to Spain – rebuild
èWould
lead to new struggle
Consequences of the war
Four main consequences
1. Carthage lost Sicily, Sardinia,
paid reparations
–Rome now held territory outside of Italian peninsula
–Lead
to garrisons on Sicily, Sardinia and also Corsica
–Needed
administrators: praetorshipexpanded, sent overseas
2. widescale change in conduct of
warfare
–Previously
Rome followed seasonal pattern: some experience
–Now
consistently kept armies in field all year round
–Polybius
– Romans ambitious more daring, thinking of conquest
3. Rome now a naval power
–Needed
too for control of ex. Corsica, Sardinia
–Allowed
Rome to project power outside Italy
4. Significant increase in public
spending: ships, armies
–Army
had logistical needs
–Spawned
rise of ‘contractor class’ – the publicani, paid by the state to build, supply,
house, procure, etc.
–Currency
expanded, more issues: coins now also used to advertise Roman power (ex.
Coin of prow of ship) –propaganda
The second Punic war 218-201
The triumph of duty over individualism
–Defining event of the roman republic
before the civil wars
–Significant and far-reaching
consequences
–Main sources: Polybius, Livy
–Livy
–Lived
59 BC –AD 17-200 years after events f
–From
Padua
–Knew
personally Rome’s first emperor, Augustus
–Whole
work: cover beginning of Romeà own
day ex. 753-19, in 142 books- only 36 survive
–Livy looked to various traditions
–Oratory and fine writing: Cicero a
model
–Livy famously lazy, would not cross
Rome to see a document
–Sources? Other writers- make major use
of Polybius
–Selected and compiled info to suit his
agenda
–Often never mentions who he is using
–Livy writing after gut-wrenching civil
war
–Aim: react to this dislocation by
concentrating on values which made Rome great
–Superior
virtue, morality
–Nobility
–Character
and courage of Romans
–Other sources
–Hannibal’s court historians – lost
–Letters
and treaties, copied by Polybius
—
Writings of Scipio family?
Major players in story… dramatis
personae
The Scipios
The Barcids
–NB: multiple Scipios
–Publius
Cornelius Scipio
–Consul
218; died 211
–Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio ‘Calvus’ (the
bald)
–Brother
of Publius Cornelius Scipio
–Consul
222, died 211
–Piblius Cornelius scipio ‘africanus’
–Son
of Publius Cornelius Scipio, nephew of Gnaeus
–Ultimate
victor in second Punic war
–The other tem- the Barcids
–Hamilcar Barca, general of 1st
Punic war, d. 228, Spain
–Father
of Hannibal
–Husdrubal “the fair”
–Son-
in law of Hamilcar, d. 221
–Husdrubal Barca, general
–Brother
of Hannibal, d 207, Italy
–Mago Barca, general
–Brother
of Hannibal, d 203, on board ship
Hannibal- not a crazed demon
–Had read memoirs of Pyrrhus
–Barcid dynasty in Spain – Hellenistic
style dynasty
–Closer to Greek king than monster
–Adept at Greco-Roman propaganda
–Temple of Melqart (Hercules) in Grades
(Cadiz, Spain)
–12labours of Hercules: drove oxen of
Geryon though Spain and Gaul over the Alps
–Cacus (giant) on Aventine hill- steal
oxen, Hercules killed him
à Punishment of Rome – grounded in Greek
myth
àPosed as liberator of oppressed Greeks
in Sicily, Italy
–And: epic journey- like Alexander?
–War broken down in phases:
1, background to war- Barcids in Spain
2, period between 218-216: Roman defeats
3. period between 216-207: revival
–War
in Italy, propaganda campaigns by Hannibal
–War
in Spain
–War
in Africa
And in this: the triumph of duty, but …
the rise of the individual… Scipio Africanus
Background- the interwar years, 241-218
–End of 1st Punic war
–Hamilcar surrendered Mt. Eryx in Siciy
–Mass resentment
–And ‘Truceless war’ (mercenary
revolt)- future damage
–Barcids powerful, choose Spain, new
lease on life
–Mines. Manpower, new beginning – nova Carthage
èSpain
would revive Carthage
–228: Hamilcar dead; Hasdrubal “the
fair” took over
–At some point: Hasdrubal, treaty with
Rome
–Boundary of interests: river Ebro
–clues: Romans preoccupied with Gauls
(“Italian Celts”)
–And also: war in lllyria (pirates,
death of ambassador- and now new protectorates)
–Lllyrian war= first protectorates in
Greece
–Romans at lsthmian Games
–So: Roman policy – curb Carthaginians
in Spain, secure lllyria, hammer Gauls?
–Before, during, after treaty- fateful decision
–Some kind of agreement, based in
fides, with Saguntum
–Hannibal attacked Saguntum, south of
Ebro river- not in violation of treaty
–But – quandary for Romans
–Friendship bounded by fides with Rome
–What to do? Honor treaty to far away
people, or let them face fate?
–If go to war, could trigger wider war
–In do nothing, would allow Hannibal to
get stronger
–Or- part of the plan all along
–The polish Guarantee, 1939
–218: Saguntum surrendered
–Roman Senate: dithered; delegatin to
Hannibal
–Eventually, Roman envoysà
Carthatge
–Livy: Hannibal urged senate in
Carthage to give up their treaty to provoke a war
èSurrender,
sack of saguntm= plays into faous story
– Hannibal ‘oath to hate Rome
–War not roman fault, Hannibal’s falur’
–Carthaginians; rejected Roman demands
and war began 218
–Roman response: both consuls
dispatched for war
–Sent
Publius Cornelius Scipio (cos. 218; father of Scipio Africanus) to Spain
–Other
cos. Tiberius Sempronius Lougus, sent to Sicily: target, Africa, and Carthage
–Which did Hannibal do
–Understood
his own strengths, weaknesses
–Would invade Italy, over the Alps (new
Hercules/ Alexander)
–Very dangerous endeavor
–Navigation
–Food
–lack
of mechanized transport
–Precedence-
Alexander the Great, Khawak pass in Afghanistan
–Hannival would face huge problems, take
many losses of men, animals, equipment
–Some allies deserted, rather than
cross Alps
–Hostile tribes in Alps would add to
problems
–Scipio: would contest Hannibal’s
crossing of phone river, southern France
Unsuccessful
After this, way open to Alps
Again, problems with allies, more,
soldiers: more afraid of Alpine crossing than fighting Romans
Livy: took 5 months for entire journey;
15 days, for Alpa
Considerable losses
Cape lacinium inscription: 20,000
infantry, 6,000 cavalry- tiny
Floored Romans
First confrontation
Ticinus River, 218 BC, northern Italy
Hannibal: suborn Gauls, fight for him-
liberator of Italy
Ticinus 218
May.20th Lecture 5
-Livy
Trebbia 218
Romans did best, but sempronius should
have waited
Tired; elephants; great pressure on
line; December rain muddled thins
Ambush by Mago
Romans were broken, although troops and
both consuls escaped
But, major military disaster
After the Trebbia, 218
Romans shocked
Enemy in Italy
Two engagements lost, significant parts
of army destroyed
But, what did romans have?
Allies
Resources
Product of early years, wars of
expansion, conquest of Italy
Polybius: Romans had huge manpower
reserves
Reports census figures for 225: 700K (or
634K)
Of Romans alone :
250000 adult males qualified for infantry
service
23000 adult males of ‘equestrian’ standing
–cavalry
table illustrates sources
other clues: the bronze plate at temple
of Hera Lacinia at Croto in S. Italy (Cape Lacinium): 20K infantry, 6K cavalry,
copied by Ploybius
Hannibal: major disadvantages
For Hannibal to win
Not destroy Rome
Crush it on battlefield – make peace (
norm in Hellenistic world)
Manpower advantage? Use propaganda …
Dismantle alliances
..nearly worked
217 new year, new consuls, new defeats
consuls for 217
Gnaeus Servilius Geminus (Servilius)
Gaius Flaminius Nepos (Flaminius)
Better job? Not to be
Why ?
Flaminius: populist, opposed Senate
Tried to curtail financial activities of
senators
Showed lack of respect for mos maiorum:
customs of the elders (i.e. respect your forefathers, they are older and wiser)
Tension between old and young a major theme in
Livy
They were right… would die in a very
famous Roman disaster
Livy uses Flaminius’ poor character to
explain his fate
Sempronius: showed hubris, lost
Flaminius: did not show Senate, elders.
What did Flaminius do?
Mad chase after Hannibal
No reconnaissance
Walked into trap
217 lake trasimene
Hannibal: well- prepared position;
plenty of time
Forced romans to fight facing lake or
mountains
Blocked exits: could only leave by
narrow paths
Romans advanced onto plain; no security;
did not notice Carthaginians; false camp to lure romans forward
Problems with fog
Romans in marching order; weapons slung;
not ready for battle
Attacked from all sides
Flaminius killed
Very serious
Romans in shock; consul dead; exits
blocked
Many drowned in the lake
Livy: 6000 escaped, only to surrender
Effect in Rome: terror at news of
consul’s death
Worse to come
Time of great emergency: what would
Senate do?
217 emergency measures
Livy
‘the defence of Italy had faied – the war
would now be at home to save the city’
senate appointed famous dictator
quintus fabius maximus
cunctator, the delayer
QFM emerges as literary foil against
upstart, impetuous, young politicians
Later ally: cato the elder (famous
conservative)
QFM’s strategy: harass supply lines;
pick fights carefully; avoid a repeat of Trebbia or Lake Trasimene
Meanwhile:
Servilius (other consul) helped to
defend Rome: implicit comparison with Flaminius
Livy: was QFM’s strategy working?
Frustrating for some not to fight. E.g.
minucius, master of cavalry (2nd in command) for QFM
Elected as co-dictator, nearly loses
life
For Livy: minucius recalls Flaminius,
Sempronius: reckless, impetuous, arrogant, young, and stupid.
But QFM’ s strategy working
Tensions between Minucius and QFM
Livy & Polybius : character couplets
Old, wise vs young, foolish
Patient vs reckless
Previews: optimates vs populares in late
Roman society
Eventually QFM’s position ended: return
to consuls
Results? Good for Rome
Character: sold estates to ransom POWs
No major disasters, but people wanted
victory.
216 disaster
216 quintus fabius maximus retired; new
consuls
gaius terentius varro (varro)
Lucius Aemilius Paullus (Aemelius Paullus)
Varro: like sempronius, like Flaminius
Unpopular with patricians
Populist, left- wing
Anti-conservative
Did not like QFM
Aemilius paullus = opposite of varro –
political opponent older, wiser, ex-consul (IIIyrian war)
He and Varro are like gladiators:
competitors
Livy uses sour relations – presage a new
disaster
Away from senate, romans recruiting new
armies
But new omens
Statues weep blood
Cold springs become hot
And worse….
Warro did have initial success
Like sempronius….cocky, bold
Aroused in him the passion to defeat
Hannibal: make his name
Hannibal: knew he could lure varro into
an ambush
Use rome’s aggressive/impetuous
leadership against them
Eventually the two sides met at cannae,
in Apulia
Before Adrianople (AD 378) this was the
most notorious roman disaster in history
Aemilius paullus was killed in battle
Problem: rome’s maniples, bad leadership
More shook for rome: a consul killed,
80000 (?) soldiers killed in one day: eight legions and their allies – the size
of four entire consular armies
What else?
Servilius geminus, ex-consul, killed
Minucius, ex-master of horse to QFM,
killed
A large number of senators who had
volunteered to fight.. lost in the battle
Varro? He escaped
Survivors- punishment battalions
Famous escapee- scipio
For perspective : Ammianus Marcellinus,
on Adrianople (AD 378)
Death of emperor valens
Destruction of eastern field army
What did Hannibal do
Did not follow up by marching on rome
But: did he intend to capture it?
But the victory was, in any case, total
Cannae: had some important consequences
Some roman allies deserted them
(hennibal’s strategy)
Anti-roman sentiment
e.g. capua, treaty with carthage: would
share Italy as part of a Carthaginian protectorate
Tarentum, thurii- defected
Sicily: hiero of Syracuse died; Hannibal
fomented an uprising there – serious
Romans: cancelled festivls looked to
religious rites to appease the gods
Buried alive Greeks and Gauls
Fabius pictor ( famous roman historian)
sent to the oracle at Delphi
What did the gods want the romans to do
New legions
For the first time, boys under 17; 8000
slaves as well
How did rome get through all this
Strength of character
Loyalty of the majority of their allies
Support and courage of the people
Indefatigable senate: never gave up
Out of this calamity, rome’s identity
would be forged
Restoration and revival: 216-202
Rome rebuilds
New problems, but new leaders: including
Scipio Africanus
Would undertake the reconquest of Italy
Fight actions abroad, in spain and Africa
New tactics, new legions, new army
And threat: to heart of state
216-206
Hannibal: wanted rome’s allies
Achieved capua; failed elsewhere
Behind this: factional politics
In rome: a new dictator
Disasters continued: e.g. consul-elect
killed on campaign- Lucius postumius (L.23.24)
So: rome facing not just Hannibal, but
multiple enemies – but still they keep going
Stories in livy show: rome’s hold on
Italy thenuous
Hannibal: plans elsewhere
215: new front opened in IIIyria,
against Macedonia ( 1st Macedonian war)
Hannibal and Philip V of macedon
Treaty copied by Polybius: curb Roman
power, not destroy it
Slowly, rome asserting itself
Rewards loyal allies; punish the ones that strayed
Campania
Sicily
Sardinia
War much wider in scope than anything
seen so far
213: rome began reconquest of Campania:
capua
capua: a terrible revenge
leaders executed
but even now, other problems
running out of cash
time of crisis- senate gave up property,
gold, silver
allies gave all they had
just enough to keep going
eventually, romans recovered Campania .
209: QFM captured and sacked Tarentum
30000 inhabitants: sold
capua and Tarentum showed: terrible
price of defiance
so by 209: capua, Campania, Tarentum,
Sardinia: all quiet
in sicily, Claudius Marcellus
siege of Syracuse famous: defence
orchestrated by Archimedes
military ideas – some seem to have
worked, others perhaps
finally, Marcellus prevailed
Archimedes famously killed by a roman
soldier
His legacy?
Archimedes palimpsest
Restoration and revival: 216- 202
Syracuse sacked brutally
Romans took agrigentum, other major city
Corn supply secured, sicily pacified
The final years
Spain
Long a sideshow to Italy
212: roman forces, led by scipo(father)
scipio killed; gnaeus scipio (calvus)
quickly followed
great shock
again, Romans able to take stock,
regroup: on the verge of annihilation, they survived
Romans still lacked a consular
commander…
who would take scipio’s place
Livy… no- one put name forward:
Another desperate situation: needs a bold
solution
Scipio
Too young; lacked experience to be a
consul
Major break with tradition
Elected as a private citizen with
imperium
What was scipio like?
Very pious; a performer; and
semi-legendary in his own lifetime
211: scipo went to spain
used his reputation, family authority,
to help him
210/209: captured new carthage
daring raid – soldiers crossed lake –
myth, helped by Neptune
follow up battles: llipa, baecula
major theme: new tactics, new
flexibility, new abilities
and, diplomacy: suborn massinissa,
syphax, numidian allies
208, at baecula – similar tactics
defeated Hasdrubal, fled to Italy
scipio – roman army now instrument to
beat Hannibal
specifically
competent generalship
innovative tacitics
use of cavalry (Laelius)
maniples as independent operators
Carthaginians: looked for a decisive
endgame in Italy
208 Roman consuls were Marcellus ( of
Syracuse fame) and crispinus
at venusia, in Apulia, han
May.22nd
Lecture 6
Restoration and revival: 216-202
The final years
New dictator: Manlius
New consuls elected:
207: combined forces to faced Hasdrubal.
In northern Italy
Livy: dramatic evocation of scene
àforced
march of picked troops, to get to Hasdrubal (Hannibal brother) before message
could get to Hannibal
Hannibal stranded in S. Italy: defeat a
matter of time
Could not get reinforcements
No easy access to supplies
Could not duplicate Rome’s alliance
system
Could not detach allies permanently
Romans ascendant
Looked to the gods: went to Delphi: and
then brought cult of Magna Mater, The
Great Mother, to Rome
205-201
Scipio finally elected as consul in 205
Plunder: nearly 15,000 lbs of silver
Another result of the wars: enrichment
and, a further direct consequence:
the need to keep successful generals in field
—Pro-consuls,
pro-praetors
—Recognition
of need to change system
—Annual
commands counter-productive
—More
consuls, praetors needed
Scipio nursing great ambition
Asked to be sent to Sicily: to get him
to Africa
But, QFM
—Youthful
arrogance of Varro, Flaminius, Sempronius, Minucius
—Naked
ambition
—Dangerous
recklessness
Scipio finally got his way
Senate hampered him – withheld troops,
money
What did he do?
—Volunteers,
Cannae legions
—Fleet
from Rome’s allies
—Took
them to Sicily
Africa:
Scipio ravaged countryside
With Massinissa, beat Carthaginian
levies
Peace agreed, then scupper
Hannibal recalled, along with Mago
‘Livy, 30.20: Hannibal furious’
Before the final flight at Zama:
Livy has the 2 meet: a very famous
speech
Hannibal
–Appeals
to Scipio, compares himself to him
–Hannibal
old, Scipio young
–Hannibal
wiser: needs peace
–Lost
his brothers; defending his native city; asking for peace
Scipio
–Carthage
is the aggressor
–Too
late to ask for peace
–You’re
finished
Scipio and Hannibal prepared their
forces
àScipio innovative
àDifference at Zama- Laelius and
Massinissa, with cavalry
‘Hannibal lost his first battle’
Zama a resounding Roman success
Scipio – treated Hannibal well, let him
stay in politics
Carthage sued for peace in the aftermath
Negotiations – including Philip V- Mac.
Soldiers at Zama
And the Romans told Philip:
The answer received from the roman
senate was anything but favorable. They were told that their king was looking
for war, and if he went on as he was doing, he would very soon find it.
An omen of things to come
Eventually, Carthage made peace
Terms harsh
—Gave
up elephants, warships, most of army
—Scipio
burned the fleet in vies of the Carthaginians
—Allied
deserters beheaded; Roman deserters crucified
—Huge
indemnity: crippled Carthage for good
Roman allies (ex. Massinissa) were
rewarded
Scipio: triumphant return to Rome
What did he do?
Scipio set an ominous precedent
Paid a huge war bounty of 123,000 lbs of
silver to his troops
Idea: loyalty to commander, not to state
Took epithet “Africanus”
Scipio: 3rd c. BC celebrity –
imperator, a victor with assent of the gods
Dangerous idea:
—Loyalty
to commander > loyalty to state
—Beginning
of individualism > duty
—Shape
of things to come
Hannibal:
—Eventually
fell out in Carthage
—Romans
came for him… he fled to Antiochus, Hellenistic ruler of Syria
Consequences
of second Punic War
Carthage was crippled
Rome: new, stronger version of itself:
on brink of Med domination, fuelled by militaristic ideology and flush with a
hard-won victory
All overseas Carthaginian territory now
Roman – and new admin needed – so new praetors, new campaigning to pacify
Spain, new settlements: definite expansion
Rome’s constitution changing: new
praetors, pro-consuls, pro-praetors: the beginnings of the imperial
administration
Rome’s reputation increased
In 216, Rome was on brink of extinction.
How was this avoided?
–Resourced
(think Pyrrhus)
–Allies
(think Pyrrhus)
–Spirit
–Courage
–Good
commanders
–Core
of resilience in the Senate, the people: the SPQR
The 2nd Punic War is a major
event in understanding how Rome became an Empire later on, and understanding
Roman ‘Identity’ – confident, militaristic
Livy:
–Rome
defeated Hannibal by:
–Staying
strong
–Honoring
the gods
–Staying
true to the state
–Following
its moral principles
–Rome
was threatened by young, arrogant, impious men
–L.
admires Africanus, he sees in him some of the traits of his own time…
‘Starship troopers’
Tension: duty vs. life, liberty and the
pursuit of happiness
Society of citizens and civilians
Roman imperialism
Expansion and creation of a world empire
Deliberate?
Accidental?
Combination?
Imperialism in 2014 has an image problem
– can we avoid a negative judgment?
Imperium
Would Romans understand our idea of
imperialism?
Roman expansion: deliberate acquisition
of territory for commercial gain?
Land-grab rush incompetition with
others?
Think of France, England, Belgium,
Germany, in Africa, for ex…
Romans would probably be perplexed if we
assigned our idea of imperialism onto them
How should we understand it?
Influential perspectives:
V.I. Lenin: Imperialism. The highest state of Capitalism
Come down to “Defensive Imperialism” vs.
“Expansionism”
Accidental vs. Deliberate
Take a look at each
Defensive Imperialism
Until recently: dominant idea
Wars conducted in self-defense
Can we find justification in ancient
texts? Sure!
Theme here:
Romans concerned about aggressive stance
of neighbors ex. Carthage
Defensive imperialism thesis very
popular: ground
Idea held sway until 1970s
New ideas
W.V. Harris: war and imperialism in republican Rome, 327-70 BC
Basic idea: Rome accustomed to
continuous war… benefits from war accrued, kept war going
Cf. Schumpeter… keep fighting, keep
winning, keep fighting to keep winning…
Expansionism?
Evidence?
Art, slaves, influence, power, money,
land… all came with victory in war
Evidence in ancient sources? Of course!
Expansionism? Or Accidental/ Defensive?
So: which idea do we favor?
Harris’ideas:
—Romans
placed value on martial activities
—Cursus honorum included vital military
steps
—Supreme
civil authority = supreme military authority
—Warfare
central to functioning of state
What about moder historians, their
views?
Mommsen: 19th cent. German…
interested in German nationalism
Saw Romans: united Italy – like Germany
was being united
Gave Roman conquest a positive spin
And Harris? Deeply affected by Vietnam War
– overseas adventures are bad, and lead to serious problems
Difficult to know which 1 we should
favor
Rome: bad enemies – Gauls, Carthage
90 serious defeats recorded in the republic
Almost became extinct in 2nd
P.W.
Romans: can we understand their fear,
apprehension? Does this justify pre-emptive strikes?
But…history of late republic is full of ambitious
men, looking for military glory – Pompey, Caesar, Sulla, Marius: we will meet
them all
No clear answer… some case studies!
Background:
Main powers in Mediterranean
Created in aftermath of Alexander’s
death in 323
‘Hellenistic’ kingdoms
East (Iraq/Iran – all the way to
Afghanistan, India): Seleucids (after Seleucus Nikator)
Macedonia: Antigonids (after Antigonus
II ‘Kneecap’)
Egypt: Ptolemies (after Ptolemy Soter)
Seleucus, Antigonus, Ptolemy: all
generals of (or descended from generals of ) Alexander’s army who founded
kingdoms after 323 BC
Rome is a tiny speck on the world map
Entering a world of great antiquity:
Will conquer almost all of it
In the conquest, Rome itself will be
conquered – change in centre of gravity
Rome – fade out and become irrelevant
Revolution – Republic to monarchy
Trade; fame, news of victories over Hannibal
spread by Greek traders
Wars in Illyria before 2nd
Punic War
Interaction with Philip V, of Macedon
(Antigonid)
During 2nd Punic War, Romans
and Rhodes, Pergamum
Pergamum: old kingdom in western Turkey
Rhodes: powerful island state, south of
Turkey
à2nd Punic War leads to war
with Macedon
The second Macedonian War: 200-196 BC
Rhodes trading centre, emporium,
crossroads East/West
Rumor: Philip V (Antigonid) of
Macedonia, Antiochus the Great of Syria (Seleucid) joining forces…
Threatened Rhodes and Pergamumàcomplained
to Rome
Invitation to intervene: looks defensive
Romans were alarmed
Remember: Romans and Philip, treaty with
Carthage
Why did Rome attack Philip?
—Macedon
is close to Italy
—Concerned
about security of Italian peninsula
Romans defeated Philip at Cynoscephalae
– “Dog’s head pass” in 197
But… actions afterwards are illuminating
Romans did not take any territory
Architect of roman victory is Titus
Quinctius Flaminimus – famous admirer of Greek culture and learning
196, TQF: ‘frees the Greeks’ – idea that
Rome had protected them from Philip
Were the Greeks really free? No
Or a protectorate, under influence of
Rome?
Clients – owned their patrons – the
Romans
—Wider
version of traditional patron – client relationship typical in Rome
Romans had other thoughts on Greece…good
place for espionage… keep an eye on Hellenistic monarchs… provide a buffer
Romans as patronsàwould
guarantee further interference
Roman operations in Greece
Factional politics:
Achaean
league (Peloponnese: Corinth; Polybius)
–Threatened
by Sparta
–Occasional
friends of Macedonia
Aetolian
league (NW Greece)
–Friends
of Rome
–Anti-Macedonian
After
197, Achaeans won more than Aetolians
Aetolians
looked to change status quo
195/4: Flamininus helped crush Sparta
194: Flamininus back in Rome
194: Aetolians: opportunity – cancel
TQF’s settlement
Champion: Antiochus III “The Great” –
invitation
Antiochus: ally of Philip; sheltered Hannibal
192: alliance with Aetolian league; army
of 10,000 sent to Greece; became commander of Aetolians
191: immediate Roman response:
expeditionary force defeated at Thermopylae
Simultaneously: Hannibal < Rhodian
navy
Then:
--Magnesia
ad Sipylum, 190: decisive victory
--Roman
commander: L. Cornelius Scipio ‘Asiaticus’ – brother of Scipio Africanus,
consul 190
Did Rome take territory? No: treaty of
Apamea (188) - territory given to allies
àNo territorial gain, but significant
interference in Greek affairs – and now, affairs of eastern states
àDeath of Antiochus, and Hannibal…
May.27th Lecture 7
148-133: deliberate Imperialism?
3 conflicts
1. Annecation of Macedonia after 148
2. Greek rebellion
3. Third Punic war
1-annexation of Macedonia
Catalyst: mercenary, Andriscus- “I am
the son of Perseus!”
Gained lots of support from Macedonia
and surrounding areas
Romans and Pergamum vs. Andriscus
Roman consul took epithet ‘Macedonicus’
Senate annexed territory, sent proconsul
to govern it
Significant: first eastern overseas territory
2-Greek rebellion
Background: social unrest, quarrels
between states
Trigger-quarrel between Sparta and
Achaean League (again)
àAchaean
League vs. Sparta and Rome
Romans- 2 legions to support Sparta –
commander notorious Lucius Mummius
146: sack of the ancient city of Corinth
Famous massacre: population killed/sold
Town burned
Fields desecrated, gift to gods of the
underworld
Close to events- Polybius – an Achaean,
sent as hostage to Rome with 999 others
Mummius – epithet “Achaicus”
Territory became Roman province of
Achaea
More deliberate seizure of territory
3- Third Punic War, 150-146
End of Carthage
Catalyst: Massinissa, desire for
territory
153: Cato with Roman Embassy in Carthage
Plutarch’s biography of Cato – amazed at
how Carthage had recovered from 2nd Punic War
Cato: delenda est Carthago
Tensions all around
Carthaginians attacked Massinissa
Rome declared war 149
Scipio Aemelianus, elected as consul –
under the required age
Bitter siege: horrific street-fighting
New province: Africa, with Utica, as its
capital
In all 3 of these instances:
-Protectorates in patron- client relationships turned in direct-rule
provinces with proconsuls or propraetors
3rd Punic War in particular: deliberate
decision to destroy Carthage
Destruction of Carthage and Corinth:
Livy identifies as beginning of moral declineof Romans
Finally: 133: the Pergamene bequest
Ancient and very powerful kingdom
Long-time ally of Rome
King Eumenes II had:
-seen
his kingdom as protectorate
-Remained
semi-independent
-Roman
interest in the kingdom increased
Now: Attalus III: wanted to avoid a
conquest
Died, 133: left kingdom, people, riches,
land, templesà SPQR
Foreign campaigns, 133-96 BC – more
deliberate expansion
After 133 – see more deliberate forms of
expansion
Asia, 133-26
Scipio Nasica – sent by Senate to
Pergamum
Rebellion of Aristonicus
Set up utopia: ‘City of the Sun’ –
everyone free, equal
Roman army: setbacks, by 126 all over
New province of Asia
Prestigious post for ambitious Roman
governors
Gaul, 125-118
125, Roman ally Massilia (-Marseille) –
ask for help
Southern Gaul annexed as Gallia
Narbonensis
Main settlement, Narbo (-Narbonne)
What is happening?
Romans used to do:
Protectorates,
local rulers
Now:
Annexing,
building roads, settling people
Military operations = opportunity to
grab land
Steady growth through military campaigns
Territory incorporated as provinces:
èInto
formal admin of Republic
All of this new territory:
-Needed
governors new opportunities for politicians
-Offered
economic prospects for negotiares
-Subject
to tax: more wealth for the state
-More
land for Roman citizens
-Required
an expansion of the bureaucracy
Political,
social, economic consequences
Many changes, consequences coming
from expansion
1. Political
New opportunities = new ways to
game the system
So:
Clarification of rules and standardization
of cursus honorum
After
180, set new minima: ages, other requirements for each office
Ex.
For quaestorship, needed 10 years of military service
Hierarchy: do all the offices in order. No
skipping!
Could not be consul more than once
Standardization of system, meant to cap
overly – ambitious people
New court to prosecute magistrates set
up – much abuse of public funds, too much corruption
Senate trying to ensure stability of
system in face of change
2. Rome, allies, in Italy
Changes in Italy
-Second
Punic War: problems in alliance system
-Rewards/punishment
– territory of punished alliesà Rome
Romans: greater scrutiny over allies
Who is going to be a threat next? –
Micromanagement
Looking for excuses? Dionysius – private
vs. public – private = anti-Roman
Spread of Roman citizens via colonia and steady ‘Romanization’ of
Italy
More citizens living amongst non-voting
allies – highlights differences between them
Ex. In Latium, citizenship actively
restricted
But: Latin soldiers fighting Rome’s wars
Disproportionate burden; no results, no
plunder
Producing resentment
Will lead to Social War (war of allies)
later on
3. Elites
Powerful, wealthy, old families (ex. Cornelii
– family of Scipio Africanus; others)
Also, now, the newly-enriched
-Campania,
Latium
-What
do they want? Senate proconsular governorships, political and military glory
Elites benefit disproportionately from
slaves, wealth, plundered art, booty, etc
Plenty to be gained from the system
-Ex.
If governor, that could:
-Demand
that people feed you, house you
-Give
you transport
-You
could extort them
Huge wealth to be gained – shown off in
Italy – big houses, expensive mosaics, extravagant parties
Imitated Greek/Hellenistic/Eastern
ideas, art, models
Famous examples: house uncovered in
Pompeii
‘House
of Faun, Pompeii’
Other influences on elites
Wealth enabled patronage, ex. Scipio
Aemelianus and Polybius
Influences from conquest on culture more
generally
-Plautus,
d. 184: influced by Greek comedy
-Terence,
d. 159 – freed Greek slave
-Fabius
Pictor – used Greek models, wrote in Greek
-Ennius
– writer who imitated Greek literature; thought he was a ‘new Homer’
Greek influence came from conquest
Some thought it made Romans weak: ex,
Cato the Elder: ‘decrepit old Greeks!’
Eastern ideas filtering in, fashions and
food too
-Elites
take heavy Egyptian cotton instead of coarse wool for toga; indulgence
-Silk,
which comes from? China
-Cuisine
becomes more exotic!
4. Economy
Great movement and displacement of
people
Enslaved
Deported
Exiled
Off to the wars – soldiers can be gone
for years and years
Off to new colonies
Who is doing all the essentialfarm-work?
-Increasingly,
slaves
What if slaves can’t be afforded? Poorà
city, slums, urban unrest
Slaves- a real problem
Huge numbers of slaves; many ways to be
a slave
Ex. 50,000 from Carthage alone
Come to Italy in massive numbersà
farms
Growth of latifundia – commercial farming ops
Big change from economy based on
subsistence
Some elites now control vast tracts
of land
Revolts
Often treated poorly – big difference
between salt mines and domestic slavery
Ex. Latium – minor revoltà
highway robbery, brigandage
Ex. 135, Sicily: Eunous – ‘king
Antiochus’ – long war to 132
Wake-up call to Rome
And 103: rising in Campania: wealthy
Roman and slave girl
Most famous: Spartacus
5. Triumphs
Triumphus
has been about for a while – becomes more intricate over time
Victorious general – triumphator
Dressed up; special parade; enemies etc.
paraded with him
Carnivalesque atmosphere
Problems: placed huge emphasis on 1
single individual
Conquest and the Roman Republic
Scipio Aemilianus
Reflects dangerous change in politics
and society
Look to people, not Senate,
for legitimacy and power
Family pedigree:
Grandson of L. Aemilius Paullus (d. 216)
Son of L. aemilius Paullus Macedonicus
Son of son of Scipio Africanus
èWell
connected!
3rd Punic War: ran for office
Too young to be consul; had not been
praetor
Senate vs. Scipio: but comitia centuriata…
Duly elected
Interference with assigning of provinces
– plebeian tribunes
People decided: let our hero go to
Carthage
Reflects?
-Senate
weak
-Standardization
laws already being challenged
Later: became censor (142)
Did opposite of what expected to do
-Associated
himself with freed slaves, plebeians
135: wanted to run for consul – need for
good commander in Spain
Found way around law: elected 134
Shades of Africanus: found way around
Senate, as well
Successfully prosecuted war in Spain
Very popular
Achieved success without Senate,
patrician support
Very dangerous precedent
Conquest and the Roman Republic
2. Gracchi brothers
Tiberius and gaius
Plebeian tribunes
Major problems:
Debate over Roman identity
Problems in government
Impending failure of Republican
constitution
èGracchi
sold issue as one of land, social problems – too many acting for their own
good, not for the good of the slate
è End results – reveal real problems in Rome
Presentation of issues: deal with social
and economicproblems
First- huge influx of wealth
Second- effects of military service on
peasants
Two sides of the same coin, in the
presentation
Soldiers on campaign for years at a
time- return, where is my farm?
Land bought for latifundia: plantations
So, no work – where do they go?
And, cycle: fewer landowning peasants –
fewer soldiers, because of property qualification
Really? Other side:
Army
smaller (more people looking for work);
Freeholders
à
tenants
Looked
as if aristocrats had ‘’taken all the land
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
From Sempronii (remember 2nd
PW)
Grandparents: Scipio Africanus, Aemillia
Tertia (from Aemelli)
Sister: wife of Scipio Aemilianus
Married into Claudii family (later: core
of imperial family)
137: Tiberius, quaestor, in Etruria: saw
latifundia – ‘not a single free famer’
133: plebeian tribune
1.
limit amount of land people could hold
2.
control rents
3.
extra landà
landless
4.
Pergamene bequest, now part of ager publicus:
could be used for this
à put people back on the land where they
belong
èFix
problems in Roman society (moral/economic)
Problem with this?
Redistribution
of land: radical: anti-patrician
Dealt
with public land – large numbers of senators involved in holding big % of ager publicus
So, senatorial resistance to be expected
So, Tiberius – decided to bypass Senate
Go to comitia instead
Another plebeian tribune, Octavius,
ordered by Senate to oppose
TG took action
Finally, 3 man commission
TG, GG, father- in- law (princeps senates, former consul)
After 133 - TG looked for re-election
Sign of ‘dangerous’ ambition
Senate instigated riot
Pontifex Maximus: Scipio Nasica
Mob killed TG and 300 followers
Witch hunt followed
May.5th Lecture 10
The first Triumvirate, 60-54
Personal ambitions
·
Pompey and Caesar
·
The first Triumvirate
·
Pompey, Crassus, Caesar
·
Major ambition: problems with Senate
·
Caesar: praetor in 62; proprietor in 61;
wanted cos., 59
·
Suetonius on Caesar
·
Caesar ready for a triumph in Rome
·
Clashed with desire for consulship, why?
·
Formal permission, request- candidacy in absentia
·
Cato the Younger sized up Caesar; made
wrong call
·
What about Pompey
·
Wanted eastern settlement ratified, land
for vets
·
Senate prevaricated
·
And Crassus – major section of this
client- publican
·
Needed new contract
·
Senate refused
·
All three butting head with Senate
·
Banded together
·
59: Pompey married Julia, daughter of
Caesar and Cornelia
·
Goals secure
o Caesar,
cos. 59, with conservative colleague
o Pompey
got ratification etc.
o Crassus-
helped publican
·
SENATE SIDELINED
·
Actions of Cicero: Concordia ordinum,
consensus omnium bonorum
·
Behind this: loyalty to state, support
of Senate
·
59: helped by Publius Clodius, tirb. 58
·
long list of problems with Cicero
·
Had infiltrated party at home of Caesar
·
Cicero prosecuted Clodius
·
Ended with exile of Cicero
·
Cicero out od the way; Clodius had own
ambitions
·
58: Caesar proconsul- Transalpine Gaul
·
Out of way; Clodius turned on Pompey
·
Role of Caesar and Crassus…put Clodius
up to it?
·
Gang warfare in streets – Clodius &
gang vs. Pompey/Miol (ally) and gang
·
Milo, trib.57 recalled Cicero
·
Why? Cicero- stablilty
·
57: returned
·
Gave Pompey a plum job, which he screwed
up
·
Gang violence did not abate
·
Pompey doing badly
·
Caesar?
·
Caesar doing very well in Gaul
o Gallic
campaigns, big consequences for
§ Caesar’s
career
§ Relationship
with Pompey
§ Fate
of Republic
Pompey and Caesar
·
Caesar in Gaul, 58-51
·
Wrote about wars in Gaul, Brotain
·
Called north Gallia Comata’
·
Agricultural society
·
58: tribe called Helvetii PRRESSED
AGAINST rHONE RIVER
·
Asked Caesar – enter Narbonensis
·
Refused:
war
·
Glory? Reai threat?
·
Defeated Helvetii at Bibracte
·
Helped out Caesar’s rep
·
Envoys came for help
·
More war: Suebi; Belgae, others
·
Fighting for sake of conquest: Caesar
set out to conquer all of Gaul
·
56: in north: savage actions
·
Resistance to Caesar – wholesale
slaughter
·
55: famous visit to Britain
·
Why? Wealth; edge of known world
·
Did not accomplish much
·
Went back to Gaul
·
Commemorated campaign in his diaries,
coins
·
52: uprsing in Gaul
·
Vercingetoris
·
Defeated Caesar; returned compliment at
Alesia
·
Later, Vercingetorix garroted in
Caesar’s triumph
·
All of this- opened up N/Central Europe
to Roman culture and civilizing
·
Changed course of history
The triumvirate threatened
·
Causes
1. Caesar
in Gaul
2. Pompey
and Crassus
3. MutuL
Suspicion
·
56: meet up: 5-year commands
o Gaul,
Spain, Syria
·
Julia died (54)
·
Crassus died (53)
·
Crassus – very ambitious
·
Burdened by expectations
o Pompey
o Caesar
o Alexander
·
Hatched big plan: invade Parthia
·
Did not take offered from Armenia
·
Crossed riverine border
·
Took 35,000 legionaried
·
Defeated by a tiny Parthian fore,
commanded by Surena
·
Factors
o Horse-archers
o Parthian
shot
o Romans
could not get close enough
·
Parthian cav superior
·
Became new boogeymen: 160s
·
Crassus lost son; head on spear
·
Retreated to Catrhae
·
Parthian c.o. Surena offered talks
·
Various stories
·
Romans shocked
·
Legionary standards taken in battle
·
Surena – met his end
·
Caesar planned campaign of vengeance
·
Strange stories...
·
The ‘gladiators’
o Caesar:
wealth, power
o Pompey:
links to Caecilii Metelli
·
Dec,
50: Caesar’s five-year Gallic command
·
Clever move on Caesar’s part – ‘I”ll lay
down my power, if you do as well’
·
Pompey agreed
·
Condition provided by Caesar’s friend,
Curio
·
Stalemate: ‘defend the Republic!’
·
Jan, 49: enter Marcus Antonius, Plebeian
Tribune… friend of Caesar
·
Jan 7
·
Caesar, Antony, Curio
o Alea
iacta est
·
Arcoss the Rubicon – out of Transalpine
Gaul, into Italy: war
Civil war: 49-46
·
Caesar: decleared war against Sentae,
Pompey
·
Position – weak morally
·
Poor tactical position
·
Some benefits- clementic
·
Cicero – Concordia
·
Pompey’s plan
·
Caesar’s unexpected response
·
Decisive showdown at Pharsalus,
Thessaly, Aug, 48
·
Pompey; defeated; fled; Ptolemy XII
·
Instead…
·
Head cut off; sent to Caesar
·
Took vengeance: disrespect
·
Why? Caesar had some old-fashion left in
him
·
What now?
o Caesar,
in Alexandria
o Captivated:
by Cleopatra; helped her get her throne back
·
ABSENT FROM Rome; Caesar, dictator, in
48
·
Left Cleopatra pregnant; caesarion
·
Rome, 47; Africa, 46, at Utica
·
At Thapsus; heavy defeat
·
Survivors
o Cato
o Scipio
·
Cicero, on Cato
·
Symbolic importance of Cato’s death
·
Caesar? Dictator, for 10 years
·
And who came to Rome?
·
One survivor of the carnage: sextus
Pompey and bro, Gnaeus
·
Raised army: beaten at Cordoba in 46/5
Caesar as Dictator, 48-44
·
Reforms- Julian Calendar
·
Attempt to deal with economic problems
·
New Sentaprs from provinces
·
Building projects
·
What else?
o Colonies
o Infrastructure
o Romans
off to the provinces-citizenship
·
Military plans
o Dacia
(Romania) wait until Trajan
o Parthia
– wait until Lucius Verus/ Marcus Aurelius
·
Didn’t’ get there
·
Assassinated in Senate by CONSPIRACY
o 15th
March, 44 ‘ldes’
o M.Junius
Brutus
o G.
Cassius Longinus
·
What about Caesar’s royal pretensions –
did they exist?
·
Feb 15,44, at the Lupercalis
o Actions
of Antony – ready with crown, judges crowd
·
Clearly resented
·
Brutus and Cassius – not alone
·
But, only caused more pain, war,
suffering
The end of the republic; birth of the
Empire
·
Antony and Octavian
·
3rd pair (Marius and Sulla;
Pompey and Caesar)
·
years 44-31: very important period in
Roman history
After Caesar: 44-43
·
Brutus and Cassius: error in judgment
·
Antony – hiding
·
M. Aemilius Lepidus – magister equitum
for Caesar – tense, stayed with troops
·
Actions of Antony
·
Like Caesar, used funeral for political
gain
o Read
will in public
o Flight
of Brutus and Cassius
·
Antony – new role for him
·
But: Caesar’s ambitious 18 years old
newphew:
o Octavius
·
Caesar’s will?
·
New name
o Gaius
Julius Caesar Octavianus= Octavian
·
Antony- facing new threat
·
First blood went to Octavian
·
Mutina (Modena), 43
·
Open hostility
·
44: Antony cos; 43, given Macedonia,
wanted Cisalpine Gaul
·
Left for new command early
·
Actions with Decimus Brutus
·
Antony vs. Senate
·
Cicero and Octavian
·
Famous speeches of Cicero: philippics
·
Cicero
o MA’s
cruelty; sex appetite; eccentricities, etc.
o Slanderous
o Enemy
of the…
·
Was Cicero a fool? Trusting Octavian?
·
MA bigger threat
·
Octavian – proprietorial power
·
Octavian suddenly – legitimate
Senatorial representative
·
Teamed up with consuls., Aulus Hirtius
and Gaius Panse
·
Antony
o Transalpine
Gaul
o Lepidus
o And
Hirtius and Panse?
o Left
Octavian with…eight legions, support of soliers
·
Octavian – Rome
·
Took money, got himself elected
The second Triumvirate, 43-32 BC
·
Cicero, Senate shocked
·
MA and Octavian: sort out diffs
·
Broker; Lepidus
·
New agreement – second Triumvirate
o Antony
o Octavian
o Lepidus
·
Idea: 5 years each
·
Nov 43: Comitia voted Triumvirs
o Supreme
power
o Lex
Tatia
o Difference
btw 1st Tr. And 2nd Tr?
·
Consequences
1. Proscription
(Cicero)
a. Included
150 senators, equestrians
2. Divisions
of power
a. Lepidus:
S.Gaul, Spain,
3. War
against Caesar’s assassins
Jun. 10th Lecture 11
The second triumvirate, 43-32 BC
After Philippi- east added to 2nd
Tr.
New
land assignments
Lepidus
gave up Spain, S. Gaul
Other
projects: Parthia; Italy
And
1. Sextus Pompey- making name for
himself
Eliminate
or negotiate?
2. Look after vets from Philippi – ex.
Land
But: uneven deal between Antony and
Octavian?
Seeds
sown for Antony’s failure
Lepidus: phased out
Discord: 42-36
War of Perusia/Perugia, 41-40
Veterans promised land in Italy
Virgil –Eclogue, 1- problems
L. Antonius, bro of Antony – cos. –
actions
Banner: ‘restoration of Republic’
Lucius helped by Fulvia
Plutarch, life of Antony, 10:
“A woman with no mind for spinning or
house-keeping, who did not condescend…”
Octavian’s actions
Blockade
Victory: clementia of Caesar
Treaty of Brundisium
Antony – could make legit claim that
Lucius / Fulvia acted alone
Antony’s deputy in Gaul
Antony at Brundisium
Forced to work together – why?
Confirmed existing agreement
Marriage to Octavia (Fulvia now dead)
War with Sextus 30-36
39: Naples
Agreement – Treaty of Misenum’
Octavian – married Scribonia (niece of
S. – wife of Sextus)
FYI: Scribonia: mother of Julia (thus,
mother in law of Tiberius, great grandmother of Caligula and Agrippinaà
mother of Nero)
Amicable
Sextus lost big opportunity
Treaty half-collapsed
Octavian and Scribonia, on day of
Julia’s birth
38: Sextus – back to being a pirate
M. Vipsanius Agrippa- finally won for
Octavian
35: Sextus murdered
Lepidus – bid for power
Forced into retirement
Pontifex
maximus until 12 BC – then Octavian
Now, 45 legions, auxiliary units
(300,000 +/-)
600 ships
Master of the west
Antony – good position?
Actions in east, vs. position of
Octavian
38, Antony looking to Parthia – join
Publius Ventidius
Octavian: called him back, but…
37: five-year terms ended
Treaty of Tarentum
Antony headed east
Parthian invasion with Artavazd
Disaster, vs. Octavian/Agrippa’s success
in west
35: Armenia added to Roman realm-
beginning of long struggle for influence
Antony and Cleopatra: now
King
and queen
Titles,
territories
Alexander
Helios; Cleopatra Selene
Ptolemy
Philadelphus
“Donations
of Alexandria”: triumph, too
What effect in Rome? For Octavian?
After with Cleopatra – what were Roman
ideas of her?
War of ideas
Octavian,
presented as option A
Antony,
option B
What else?
Octavia, in Athens
Speculation
about Octavian’s actions?
Result
, anyway: public anger
But-
Antony shot himself in the foot
34: letter to Senate; ignored
Jan 1, 32 BC
Ideological war intensified
Formal split
Now, underhanded actions: Antony’s will
What
did it say?
Confirmed Antony’s attitude, outlook,
dangerous ideas
Moving capital to Alexandria?
War was only a little way off
What does Syme (Roman Revolution) have
to say about this?
32 BC
Problems for Octavian – Triumvirate over
Source of authority?
Feb; Rome; actions in Senate
Panic
Conscious portrayal as
Savior
Bringer
of peace, order
Protégé
of Apollo
Played
on experience of civil wars
32-31 BC
Senate: Octavian’s puppet
Antony: lost all remaining credibility
Antony: prepared army
Octavian: consul for 31 (pretense of
legitimacy)
Oath – to Republic?
Patron/client relationship
Next: Actium
31 BC
Definitive engagement at Actium
Key moment: Cleopatra’s actions
31-30 BC
30: blockaded Alexandria
Demanded surrender
What did Antony do?
Knew what fate awaited him, if he was
caught
And Cleopatra?
Legacy of Cleopatra
Oriental
despot queen
Depictions
heavily romanticized – languid, sexual, etc.
Egypt annexed
Consequences of Actium
Antony
and Cleopatra
Psych/political
turning point
Reinforced,
revealed soc/cultural changes
Actium and aftermath
Octavian – cementing control of Med
basin
West
29 – returned to Italy
Res
Gestae – 14 AD
Remarkable propaganda document
Role of Mussolini
Ankara
Copies everywhere
RG – showed how he explained his power
èStresses
how Octavian/Augustus “saved” the republic at the behest of the
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